24 February 2007
Research Update #3
In less than 200 words, please share with us your key concepts that you discovered. I would imagine that you will have three maybe four such key concepts. Be careful as to how you construct these statements so that they reflect your own thoughts, yet are scientifically accurate and level appropriate. These statements should demonstrate your diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories, applications, etc. Please post prior to March 5th.
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Dry ice has a temperature of -109.3º Fahrenheit/ -78.5º Celsius, and is very hazardous to handle because if any part of your body touches it long enough, you would get frostbite. One experiment that shows how solid CO2 sublimates into its gaseous state at normal pressure is putting dry ice in a container with water and putting a balloon over it. The dry ice sublimates at -78.5º Celsius and the change to gas would inflate the balloon. Another interesting experiment with dry ice is to make the "dry ice bomb". This experiment is based on the fundamentals of sublimation. A small piece of dry ice is put into a container with water and sealed. The sublimation process will release CO2 gas and create high pressure inside the container. As a result, the container will explode and make a huge noise. Recently researchers have discovered 5 new forms of CO2: I, II, III, IV, & V. These new forms are only evident at incredibly high pressures, over 180 gigapascals. CO2 I-V are solids and can be made as glass or almost as hard as a diamond. When CO2 is put under enough pressure and/ heated, it emits a green laser light.
Organic synthesis can be defined as the construction of organic molecules via chemical processes. Specifically, I chose to investigate organic synthesis in water. The intrigue behind organic synthesis in water is really the fact that very little research has been done in this area. After corresponding with two professors who study this field extensively, I have found that one of the largest benefits to using water as opposed to organic solvents is the benefit to the environment. Since many organic solvents are dangerous/toxic/costly, as well as not being able to be reused, more and more organic solvents are being produced to perform these experiments and creating more waste, polluting the atmosphere. Green chemistry is a movement whose purpose is to refine chemical methods to a point where waste and pollution, as well as toxicity, are held to a minimum. While water is a good alternative due to its low health risk and low cost, it also has been shown to speed up certain reactions, therefore yielding a higher percentage of products from the same amount of reactants. Also, protection/deprotection methods need not be used, whose purpose is to protect functional groups from breaking off from the organic compound and bonding with the solvent. These methods are extremely tedious, costly, and time-consuming, and without them, more experiments can be done at a more efficient pace and price.
Antinoise is the inverse of a sound wave. When the antinoise and the unwanted sound waves collide, the result is silence. In order to create antinoise there needs to be a microphone listening to the noise in the surrounding area, a processor that can change this noise into a number, find the inverse of that number, and then a speaker that will convert the number into an antinoise wave. The use of antinoise can prevent hearing loss in the work place and while listening to a personal music player.
Bose-Einstein Condensate is created by cooling substances (usually 87Rb) within a small margin to 0°C which allows for the quantum states of the atoms to be the same in turn allowing them to coalesce. This is able to happen because of bosons which coalesce when in the same quantum state. First predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein, it was created by Carl Wieman, Eric Cornell, and Wolfgang Ketterle who won the Nobel Peace Prize in Physics in 2001. I looked for who was currently leading the field with research and what had been done since its recognition by the scientific world. I learned that the University of Colorado was leading the field and that the boson’s counter part, the fermion, had also been made into a condensate rightly named fermionic condensate. I also learned that in 2000, some researchers in France were able to create a vortex out of BEC with a laser due to the similar properties that the photon and boson have allowing them to in a way coalesce.
I am researching intermolecular bonds and they differnt types are ionic, van der waals, hydrogen, and dipolar.
Ionic Bonds are formed by two positively or negatively charged atoms
or Ions. A molecule “steals” an electron to fill its valance shell from another
atom that has one extra electron.
A hydrogen bonds occurs when a hydrogen that is attached to a highly
electronegative atom such as oxygen nitrogen or fluorine. The hydrogen
Atom has a slightly positive charge and the hydrogen then is attracted to
another highly electronegative atom. Then the hydrogen is bonded to two
Atoms, and one through the means of a hydrogen bond. The most common
Example of this is water.
Dipole Bonds occur between two polar molecules. The negative end of one
Molecule is attracted to the other molecules positive end. This forms a dipole
Bond.
A Van Der Waal bond can occur between a polar molecule and an instantaneous
Polar molecule or between two instantaneous polar molecules. An instantaneous
Polar molecule can be formed either by a polar molecule or by the repulsion of
negatively charged electron clouds in non-polar molecules. These instantaneous
Polar molecules are only in existence for a very short period of time before they go
Back to being normal non-polar molecules.
I decided to research nanotechnology in cancer. Currently, there is no cure for cancer. Nanotechnology is “the science of manipulating atoms and molecules to fabricate materials, devices and systems.” Nanotechnology involves the use of nanoparticles, which are microscopic particles whose size is measured in nanometers, or 1 billionth of a meter. The goal is to be able to use nanotechnology to cure cancer in an effective and timely manner. While many of the treatments for cancer, like chemotherapy and radiation, do work, they often kill healthy cells in addition to the cancer cells. Also, oncologists often cannot detect the cancer until it has affected millions of cells, whereas the nanoparticles will be able to detect it when it has only affected a small percentage of cells. Researchers at Stanford University have discovered that inserting carbon nanotubles coated with folate molecules into cancer cells allows them to destroy the cancer cells while sparing the healthy ones. The cancer cells are covered with a receptor for folate, and when the carbon nanotubles are exposed to near infra red light, they heat up and kill the cancer cell. While this research is still at an early stage, it may ultimately help cure cancer.
I am experimenting with Alka-Seltzer and many liquids.
Alka-Seltzer reacts faster in hot water than in cold. This is becuase in hot water the H2O molecules are moving at much higher speeds and therefore have a much greater chance of coming in contact with and reacting with the Alka-Seltzer. The inverse is true about cold water.
Alka-Seltzer reacts signifiantly quicker with orange juice than with milk (room temp.) I still have to do some research on this one but when placed in milk it only reacts for a few seconds, leaving most of the tablet together.
Lastly, Alka-Seltzer reacts slower in salt water than in cold water. This has to do the the Na and Cl ions present inside teh salt water during the reaction.
X-ray crystallography is the study of x-ray diffractions of crystals. It has examined the double helix of DNA, constructed 3-D structures of proteins like myoglobin, and even look at dangerous diseases like HIV, E. coli, and even Buckyballs. Nonetheless, XRC is very difficult because the crystallization of proteins or organic molecules often is the obstacle that hinders discoveries. Membrane proteins are vital to drug production; they are the basis of 75% of them. Right now, there are over 24,000 protein structures currently stored in the Protein Data Bank; yet, only about sixty are membrane proteins. This discrepancy should decrease as technology advances. Already XRC has given insight on DNA but the next goal is to decipher membrane proteins which are more difficult. Previously, scientists would hypothesize the structural function of organic molecules but now they have started to understand how proteins behave in chemical reactions with inventions like the synchrotron. The pharmaceutical industry will gain the most from XRC because there is so much potential for drug production. Now scientists only need to get the necessary tools to further the study of structural genomics. Hopefully XRC can one day help cure all diseases.
Although tattoos have been applied to the body for centuries, it is only recently that scientist have started to dive into the real potential dangers of the chemicals which make them up, and the reactions they may have on the body. In order to provide myself with some basic background information I first studied what makes people the skin color they are at birth. I found that not only the percentage of melanin, a chemical that deals with pigmentation, but the size and texture of it lead some to have darker or lighter skin colors than others. Next, I researched how tattoos exactly work and why they stay on the skin for so long. I found that tattoo ink is injected deep into the skin, past the epidermis, and into the dermis, where it lays in between cells. Therefore, even though the body continually remakes cells, the tattoo remains; in addition the ink molecules are too big to be removed by white blood cells to begin with. Lastly, what the majority of my project is about is the dangers of this ink. I found that all tattoo inks basically have the same base chemicals but each artist is allowed to mix their own ingredients without consumer knowledge and therefore substances such as lead may find their way into the body.
UV-Visiable Spectrophotometry is a way of determining different solutions. UV-Vis Spectrometers are a device that uses two lights, an arrangement of mirrors, filters, and two different solutions in cubettes to look at the absorbancy of a solution. After the light passes through the different mirrors and filters the light from the cubette with a solution is compares to that of the light from the water. The different absorbancys and wavelengths are compared and the solution can be determined. Beer-Lamberts law says that the concentration of a given solution is directly related to its absorbancy. After testing this with Colbalt, the law is true. When filling the cubette with 50% colbalt and 50% water the absorbancy was 2x as much as when I filled it with 25% colbalt and 75% water.
Through my research, I have a gained a sufficient knowledge of the technology called Organic Light Emitting Diodes. This technology is the future of all display products such as televisions, cellular phones, even lighting. During my research, I spoke with a professor from the Georgia Institute of Technology. Our conversation allowed me to gain an even further understanding of the material. He explained that the material is taking time to develop just as previous display technology such as LCD and Plasma screens. He also explained how the pi bonding in the OLED material allows for the electrons to move freely which in return produces light in different colors and resolutions. Our conversation was insightful and intriguing. Next, I investigated more on the topic of OLEDs with Reiner Smid, of Philips, who provided insight on the consumer aspect of this new technology. He described the previous patterns of the acceptance of technology and how the new OLEDs will eventually phase into this next generation of displays. He also focused on the monetary aspect. Philips expects the OLEDs to be about a $4 Billion dollar industry by 2010. Overall my experience through my research definitely broadened my knowledge of OLED technology.
What determines a person’s hair to be curly or straight?
- Hair type is determined by genetics. Hair type is incompletely dominant. This means that two alleles form to create a combined phenotype and neither allele is completely dominant. So curly hair (HH) is incompletely dominant over straight hair (H’H’), and heterozygous is wavy hair (HH’). This is why we have varying hair types.
How do we “reverse” our natural hair type to permanently curl or straighten hair?
- Your hair is made up of protein, specifically keratin which holds a lot of the amino acid cystine. These protein chains are connected by the disulfide bonds created by the cysteine. The disulfide bonds are between two sulfur atoms connected to proteins that are cross-linked produce the hair’s shape. The reducing solution is used to split the disulfide cross-links to allow for them to be rearranged. Then the hair is either straightened or put around rods; because the protein chains are no longer closely bound together, they can alter positions. Then adding an oxidizing agent will recreate the disulfide bonds in their new positions. This will create curly or straight hair for about a year or until the hair grows out.
Grapes...
Since you have all seen the video, you can probably visualize most of this. There are four points you need to understand:
Microwaves: Not to be confused with microwave ovens, these are created by moving a charged particle up and down a tube. This particle emits microwaves. The frequencies of these can be changed by the speed at which the molecule moves.
Microwave Ovens: Inside of these, microwaves bounce around until they find water. This is because microwaves cause water molecules to shake.
Grapes: They're made of water (and some other chemicals that amplify this process). When a grape is cut like in the video, it forms a dielectric antenna, which is great for creating an electrical arc. Basically, the waves enter one grape, are amplified, and shot out to the other.
Light: If you've noticed on a light spectrum, light and microwaves are the same thing, except that microwaves are at a much lower frequency. But when these waves enter the grape, they are amplified and their wavelengths shorten to those of light waves. This is why you can see the light above the grapes.
Mass Spectrometry is the process that is used to find the molecular mass of a sample, the isotope, or isomer of the sample. In order to begin the mass spec process, one has to make the sample a bunch of ions. Its those ions that are used in the process of analyzing the sample. There are approximately 8 major ways one can ionize: electron ionization, chemical ionization, electrospray, nanoelectrospray, MALDI, fast atom/ion bombardment, desorption ionization on silicon, and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization. Chemical ionization and electron ionization have been replaced by newer technologies, however. The most widely used methods are electrospray ionization and MALDI. Electrospray involves puting the sample and a solvent in a capillary and then applying high voltage to the end of the capillary. Nanoelectrospray is very similar, but takes less of a sample to perform. Both are .01% accurate in their readings. MALDI uses a 'matrix' and a laser to make the sample ions. The matrix consists of the sample, a solvent, and a UV absorbing compound. When the laser is shot at the sample, the UV absorbing compound absorbs the energy and passes it onto the sample. The matrix then reacts in a way that creates ions.
My project was on nanotechnology and more specifically, Drug Delivery and Carbon Nanostructures & Nanoscale Properties.
Drug Delivery & Carbon Nanostructures
At first I thought it would be impossible to send the CNTs and buckyballs with the peptide bonds or other drugs to specific locations in the body that need it. However, after talking with Lesa Tran (w/ Rice University) she told me that they use carbon nanostructures because they are fairly easy to derivatize, which means that its simple to add certain functional groups and drugs to. They add a hydroxyl group if they need the carbon nanostructure to be water soluble and they add any functional group for it to be "biocompatible." I emailed NanoVic Researchers about certain bioengineering products and they emailed me back and told me that they are developing biopolymer needles, which use nanotechnology because the needles are extremely small, so it doesn't hurt to inject drugs or certain reagents. Also they are making a patch, which has "microprotrusions" that push through the top layer of skin, which does not let anything through, and then the carbon nanotstructures go through the other layers of skin to be directed by the blood.
Nanoscale Properties
Another concept that intrigued me was that at the nanoscale certain properties changed even at standared room temperature and pressure. For instance, Gold turns red and acts as a catalyst and is a liquid. Lesa Tran explained to me that the surface area to volume ration obviously went down because it was so small, but I learned from her that since the surface area was higher that meant that more atoms were at the surface, which meant that most elements were very reactive. Some scientists say that aluminum turns combustible, but others refute this statement by saying that aluminum oxidizes very fast naturally, so it's not actually combustible. Copper turns clear. Optic properties change because the elements can scatter the light better since they're smaller.
and that's all
PV=nRT shows that when temperature is increased either pressure or volume must increase. Since explosives are solids or liquids to start with their volume can’t expand, so when they are heated their pressure must go up. Eventually the different elements or molecules that make up the explosive will reach a heat of formation and form several gasses. An explosive is an exothermic reaction which is where the fire comes from. How ever the explosive causes damage because its new gaseous state is highly pressurized and while the gas expands rapidly to relieve the pressure the gas will crush what it touches because of the pressure. The explosive must start as a solid or a liquid or else pressure won’t build, the reactants must be a gas or the pressure won’t be released and damage anything, and the reaction must be quick or else the pressure will be relived slowly damaging nothing. There are several models to determine the explosive power of a gas, the AM and the PM models, however they are not completely accurate with experimental data, and scientists continue to work on improving the theoretical so that it matches the experimental.
PV=nRT shows that when temperature is increased either pressure or volume must increase. Since explosives are solids or liquids to start with their volume can’t expand, so when they are heated their pressure must go up. Eventually the different elements or molecules that make up the explosive will reach a heat of formation and form several gasses. An explosive is an exothermic reaction which is where the fire comes from. How ever the explosive causes damage because its new gaseous state is highly pressurized and while the gas expands rapidly to relieve the pressure the gas will crush what it touches because of the pressure. The explosive must start as a solid or a liquid or else pressure won’t build, the reactants must be a gas or the pressure won’t be released and damage anything, and the reaction must be quick or else the pressure will be relived slowly damaging nothing. There are several models to determine the explosive power of a gas, the AM and the PM models, however they are not completely accurate with experimental data, and scientists continue to work on improving the theoretical so that it matches the experimental.
Basically, chromatography is different versions of what we did at the beginning of the year with the black dot on the piece of paper that separated into all of the different colors. Thin layer chromatography is basically exactly that, but instead of paper, a metal or glass plate with an adsorbent like silica gel on it is placed in the solution and separates. Column chromatography separates things using a glass(usually) column in which there is an adsorbent, and gravity drains the liquid through the silica gel or other adsorbent, and the desired eluents drip through. Ion exchange chromatography is basically like column, but it uses charged beads, which draw out the oppositely charged particles letting the rest drip through. Affinity chromatography also uses this method, but instead of charges or a silica filter, it uses a specially designed immunoadsorbent which pulls out the undesired protiens. Counter current chromatography is where 2 immiscable liquids are mixed, absorbing the substance, then they separate using centrifugal force, pulling the parts of the substance apart.
ALD (adrenoleukodystrophy) is caused by the excess amount of VLCFA (very long chained fatty acids) in the peroxisomal membrane of the cells in the human body. These VLCFA need to be synthesised because the body functions off of these fatty acids. While studying these various VLCFA's in the body and linking them to the diseas ALD, two different protieins VLCS and the ALD protein. The questoin was then posed, what is the functional relationship between these two proteins? These two proteins are located in similar areas of the cell membrane.While one, the ALD protein is located outside the peroxisome, the other protein, VLCS , is located inside the peroxisome. The ALD protein is a transport protein and the other is a protein which synthesises VLCFA which are transported into the peroxisome. In people suffering ALD, the ALD transport proteins do not function meaning that the VLCFA can not be broken down by the VLCS protein which causes build up. There are three main concepts which I have stated above that are vital to understanding ALD and VLCFA. Fatty Acids (VLCFA) are vital for the human body and if synthesis does not occur, the human body will not function and will completely deteriorate, slowly killing the person. There are three main factors which link to ALD and VLCFA build up: no coenzyme A, non functional transport protein, and build up of fatty acids.
The Fischer-tropsch process is a process in which solid fuels are made in to liquid fuels: mainly coal into synthetic crude oil. In the FT process there is the FT synthesis, mechanics, and kinetics. The FT synthesis is composed of four equations. The first equation creates the CO2 and H2 that is needed to initiate the process. The next three equations all create hydrocarbons: one creates alkanes, another alkenes, and the last one oxygenated hydrocarbons. The FT mechanics go though five parts; however, the first three are more vital for understanding the process. The first is the absorption of the reactants in the catalyst. The catalyst is where the second step, chain initiation, takes place. The chain initiation is started when the C in separated from the O and then the c turns into CH, CH2, or CH3. The third step is chain growth. This step artificially increases the amount of carbons in the hydrocarbons. The kinetics of the FT is still disputed over. There seem to be a little too many variables. Also not too long ago they realized that the form they scientists were most commonly using for the kinetics was wrong, so they all were incorrect.
I did my project on Acid Base Titration. Acid Base Titration is the process used to find the Concentration of an Acid or Base by reacting it with another Base or Acid. The Base/Acid with the unknown concentration is called Analyte while the Acid/Base with the known concentration is called a Titrant. In the process, the titrant is held in a Burette, which drops measured amounts of Titrant into the Analyte. They are reacted together until the point at which the reaction is complete which is called the Equivalence Point, this is when the Acid and Base have been mixed together in Stoichiometric proportions. A chemical called an Acid-Base Indicator is placed into the Analyte to signify the completion of the reaction. The Acid-Base Indicator changes colors at the completion of the reaction which is called the end point. I tried to find out why Acid Base Titrations are useful and how we are using it to advance science. Acid Base titrations are useful because they help you find Titration curves which can tell you a lot about the behavior of a chemical. They also covert vegetable oil into biodiesel, tell us how clean our water is, help us limit pollution and acid rain, and help us predict diseases in the liver as well as many other things.
My research project topic is carbon nanotubes, a relatively recent area of study for scientists, discovered by Sumio Iijima in 1991. Nanotubes have incredible properties that allow them to have many possible applications. They are superconductive, which is when elements conduct electricity at extremely low temperatures, and they are also thermal conductors. In addition, carbon nanotubes are the stiffest material ever synthesized. A few of the many possible applications of carbon nanotubes is the synthesis of various fibers, which could improve many fields of synthesis. Also, nanotubes can be used to improve fuel cell technology in the future, because the nanotubes absorb hydrogen that would then be used like gasoline. The world of carbon nanotubes has only just begun, and they could be a very important allotrope of carbon in the future.
I did my project on Argon Plasma Coagulation, or APC. APC is the use of an argon gas to surround an electric current coming out of a probe to create plasma. This plasma , when applied to surface needing coagulation, will char the blood cells together, forming coagulation. The process of charring cells together is called cautery and the use of an electric current to do so is called electrocautery, therefore APC is a form of electrocautery. However, unlike a regular current, APC will only coagulate the blood cells instead of hurting them as well. Argon is a noble gas which means it has a full outer shell, or full s and p orbitals, these properties are useful in APC because when an electric current is passed through argon, its electrons will begin to strip off the molecule and continue to collide with each other until plasma is formed. In other words, argon is a molecule that can turn to plasma very quickly because of its large number of electrons. Plasma can also be formed from applying heat to the gas. Therefore plasma is an ionized gas which means that is a medley of highly electrified nuclei and and free electrons. Finally, APC is very useful because it can be applied to very hard-to-reach areas in the body. This is true because it is used from a probe, and the area where it is used most often is the gastrointestinal tract, or the stomach and colon.
Vibrating atoms
Infrared spectroscopy is being used to identify molecules in compounds and substances to analyze crime scenes and evidence. Infrared rays are a preferable way of analyzing objects for a few reasons. Because of the low energy none of the bonds are broken apart, nor does it change the chemical formula. This is preferable to combustion analysis where you have to burn the sample to analyze it. It is also nice because the frequency of the constant vibrations in molecules is similar to the frequency of infrared waves. So… when you shine a beam of infrared light through a solution it’ll allow you to identify the compounds present.
How it works.
When you shine the light through a solution certain parts of the molecules react differently. Now by looking at the infrared rays before and after their emission you can determine what all is in the solution. At certain frequencies different parts of the molecule are acted upon because when the frequency of the bond and the frequency of the rays match the bonds tend to resonate. The bonds usually respond to frequencies in this order form least to greatest: Single bonds, Double bonds, Triple Bonds, then C-H bonds and then other groups with Hydrogen attachments. These bonds tend to act in about six different ways: symmetrical stretching, asymmetrical stretching, scissoring, rocking, wagging, and twisting. So by identifying these different reactions in the solution you can determine what it’s made of. (by use of a infrared spectrophotometer.) Then by collecting this data on a graph you can look at all the separate frequencies and judge whether or not the beam is being absorbed and how much at different frequencies.
My original idea was to mix sodium bicarbonate, aspirin, citric acid, and alka-seltzer (non-flammables substances with -OH groups) with ethanol and observe the change in flammability. Unfortunately, due to insolubility, the experiment was impossible to conduct because the substances didn't mix with ethanol. Here are the reasons each additive didn't work:
Sodium Bicarbonate
Baking Soda couldn't mix with ethanol because it has an extremely low polarity. Because ethanol is quite polar, it can only dissolve molecules with similar polarity. Also, baking soda has flash (ignition) point of 0, which means it is completely non-flammable. This further heightened the problem
Citric Acid
The form of citric acid I used was non-polar and insoluble in ethanol. Although citric acid has a flash point of 174 degrees Celsius, it is only ignitable in high-pressure situations.
Aspirin
When placed in acid, due to decent polarity, it was partially soluble in ethanol. However, there was no significant change in the flammability of the Bacardi rum or bug spray. Ignition of this compound is only possible in very dry air.
Alka-Seltzer
Alka-Seltzer, though most soluble, showed no effect on flammability.
The experiment was unsuccessful because it is impossible to determine effect on flammability without solubility.
I did my project on Diet coke and Mentos. As is well known, when adding mentos to Diet coke, it produces a reaction, which spews the diet coke out of the top of the bottle. During my project, I tried to answer the main question of whether this was a chemical or physical reaction. I determined that it was a physical reaction due to my testing and due to the study of some key concepts. The most important of which was the Principal of nucleation. Nucleation is the principal that allowed my reaction to take place. In Diet coke, there is a lot of carbon dioxide inside of the diet coke (the carbonation). When you open a bottle, it bubbles. The bubbles are formed when they find some debris with surface area, which allows the dissolved CO2 to gather on the debris and form bubbles. Mentos has an extremely large surface area because its surface is covered in small pits. Thousands of small pits are on the surface, which allow a lot of CO2 bubbles to form. This nucleation effect occurs quickly and causes the reaction to occur violently. This was the main concept in my project and though I looked at other possible things that may have contributed to this reaction, this seems to be the main thing that works because salt also produced a reaction and salt is very simple (NaCl) and would not contribute chemically to the reaction. (Sorry for the extreme lateness of this post.)
The thermite reaction is a thermal reaction with a very high exothermic heat. It can be very dangerous depending on the situations. Thermite has been used for welding, but now is usually used for demo labs in highschools. If it is done correctly it is a fairly safe experiment. I have not yet actually done the thermite experiment but i will post again here with a link for the video when i finish it.
Most of my research dealt with the effects of bismuth compoundd on the bacterium Clostridium difficile. Clostridium difficile is a known cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous enterocolitis. It is the main bacterium used in the experiments described. Certain fruit juices have higher levels of antimicrobial activity than others and therefore can provide better results when used with the bismuth against the bacterium. Grape juice and Orange juice were found to have the best effects when combined with the bismuth. Although the results from this experiment show that some of the compounds had antibacterial activity but the mechanism that allows bismuth to kill bacterium is not known yet. Bismuth Subsalicylate interacts with molecules containing sulfhydryl groups, such as L-()-cysteine-HCl, DL-homocysteine, and glutathione, and also with fruit juices and ascorbic acid. Pepto-Bismol may have the potential to cure C. difficile infections.
Most of my research is focused on the basic idea of nuclear fusion and the rest is on the experimentation in the past and present. I have used this information to get a better understanding of the recent advances that have been made and how scientist are working to improve their research. It is obvious that the time, money, and effort that goes into such research is great and demanding. Problems such as creating and controlling a high enough temperature are what mainly sets researchers back.
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